Netherlands

Works councils have the right to nominate up to one third of the members of supervisory boards or a third of the non-executive directors in larger companies. However, neither employees of the companies nor trade unionists dealing with them can be nominated, so the works council nominees are often distant from employees’ day-to-day concerns.

In the Netherlands, public limited companies (NV) and private limited companies (BV) can choose between a single-tier (monistic)and a two-tier (dualistic) corporate governance structure.

In the single-tier structure, there is a single board of directors, which can be made up entirely of executive directives or be a combination of executives and non-executives. In the two-tier structure, there is a management board and a supervisory board. The management board runs the company and the supervisory board, is regularly informed of developments, appoints and dismisses the management board and approves major management decisions. Large companies – defined as those with issued capital of more than €16 million, at least 100 employees in the Netherlands and a works council (obligatory for companies with more than 50 employees) – must either have a supervisory board or include non-executive directors in the single-tier board of directors. (International groups with the majority of employees outside the Netherlands are exempt from this obligation.)

In these “large” companies, other than those who are exempt, the works council has a right to nominate a third of the board members, either to the supervisory board or among the non-executive directors, although in both cases the process is somewhat complicated.

Where there is a two-tier structure, the works council’s nominations go first to the supervisory board and then to the general meeting of shareholders. (All nominations to the supervisory board must come from the supervisory board.) The works council’s nominations must be accepted by the supervisory board, unless there are good grounds for not doing so, such as that the person was unfit or that the appointment would unbalance the board. (If there are objections the two bodies attempt to reach an agreement, with the Enterprise Chamber of the Amsterdam Court taking the final decision.) These nominations, along with all others then go to the general meeting of shareholders. The general meeting can reject the nominations from the supervisory board, including those which originally came from the works council, but it cannot make its own nominations, as these must come from the supervisory board.

The general meeting of shareholders also has the right to dismiss the entire supervisory board by a majority vote, provided this vote represents at least one third of the issued share capital. However, the meeting must hear the views of the works council before taking a decision.

Finally, the legislation also permits the supervisory board, general meeting of shareholders and the works council to agree other arrangements if they wish, although the right of the shareholders to reject a nomination cannot be removed.

Where a “large” company opts for a single-tier structure (with just one board), many of the duties which in a dualistic structure are carried out by supervisory board become the responsibility of the non-executive directors, who must make up a majority of the board. For example, the non-executive directors appoint the executive directors. The non-executive directors are appointed at the general meeting of shareholders and in “large” non-exempted companies (that is those required to have employee representation at board level) the works council continues to have special nominating rights for up to a third of the non-executive board members.

However, one very important element of the Dutch approach is that employees of the company or of a union involved in collective bargaining with it are specifically excluded from being members of the supervisory board or non-executive directors. The thinking behind this relates to a core feature of the Dutch system – that members of the supervisory board and non-executive directors should act in the interests of the company as a whole and not as representatives of partial interests, whether they are shareholders, banks or employees. This also means that works council members, for example, cannot be on the supervisory board or become non-executive directors. Those who are chosen are probably somewhat distant from the day-to-day concerns of the workforce. They are sometimes academics, perhaps with a broad sympathy for trade unions positions, individuals with a human resources background, people from the voluntary sector, and in some cases former senior trade unionists.

In practice, it appears that works councils do not make full use of their right to nominate members of the supervisory board. A report in 2012 found that in almost half of the cases examined (four out of nine) the works council had not taken up their nominating rights.[1]

Dutch companies are also only making slow progress in increasing the number of women on management and supervisory boards. Since 2013, the government has required “large” companies to appoint women to at least 30 percent of the seats on their management and supervisory boards. However, by 2019 in 4,700 large companies there were only 19.8% where women made up 30% of the management board and only 32.3% where this level had been reached on the supervisory board.[2] The government is considering introducing legislation which will invalidate any appointment which does not contribute towards the 30% figure. This would also affect nominations coming from the works council.

Supervisory board members and non-executive directors nominated by the works council have the same rights and responsibilities as any other members and directors. This includes their period of office. The Dutch Corporate Governance Code provides that members the supervisory board should be appointed for an initial period of four years, which can be extended by a second four years, with extensions after that only for a period of two years, possibly extended by a further two.[3] The Code does not specify the term of office for non-executive directors, but in general they are treated in the same way as members of the supervisory board.

Since July 2010, works councils in public limited companies (NV) have had the right for their views on certain issues to be heard at the shareholders’ general meeting. The works council can comment on resolutions approving the management board, including appointments and dismissals, on major changes in the identity of a company and on remuneration policy. There is no requirement for the shareholders to take account of the views of the works council.

[1] De samenstelling en het functioneren van de raad van commissarissen in het boekjaar 2011 alsmede het verslag van de raad van commissarissen by J Biesheuvel-Hoitinga and AA Bootsma, Instituut voor Ondernemingsrecht, October 2012

[2] Diversity in the boardroom: Time to accelerate, Summary - SER-advisory report September 2019

https://www.ser.nl/-/media/ser/downloads/engels/2019/diversity-boardroom.pdf (Accessed 06.05.2020)

[3] The Dutch Corporate Governance Code, December 2016.

It is the works councils who choose employee representatives from the Netherlands on bodies related to European Works Councils and European Companies, with clear a hierarchy running from the central works council to individual works councils.

European Works Councils

Dutch members of the special negotiating body (SNB) for the EWC are appointed, in order of priority, by the central works council (COR), if one exists; by the group works council (GOR) or councils; or by the individual works councils (ORs). Where not all works councils are covered by the central or intermediate bodies, they should be included in the process. If there is no works council the employees themselves elect the members with unions having nomination rights. The legislation is silent on the possibility that non-employees could be chosen as members of the SNB.

The position is the same for members of an EWC set up under the fallback procedure in the annex to the directive, although here the legislation specifically states that only employees may be elected.

European Company

Dutch members of the special negotiating body (SNB) for the European Company are appointed, in order of priority, by the central works council (COR), if one exists; by the group works council (GOR) or councils; or by the individual works councils. Where not all works councils are covered by the central or intermediate bodies, they should be included in the process. If there is no works council the employees themselves elect the members with unions having nomination rights. The legislation is silent on the possibility that non-employees could be chosen as members of the SNB.

The position is the same for members of the SE representative body (described in the Dutch legislation as a European Works Council) set up under the fallback procedure in the annex to the directive, although as with normal EWCs, the legislation states that only company employees may be members.

The same rules apply to the choice of employee representatives at board level coming from the Netherlands, although the legislation does not specify that they must be employees.

In the Netherlands, the works council is the key body representing employees’ interests in the area of health and safety, which it deals with alongside its many other responsibilities. It can delegate its powers to a health and safety committee but a majority of the members of this committee must also be works council members.

Basic approach at workplace level

The employer must ensure that the health and safety of employees is protected and is particularly required to operate a policy aimed at preventing or eliminating “employment-related psychosocial pressure”. There should be an active exchange of information between the employer and the employee representatives on working conditions.

Employee health and safety bodies

The key body representing employees in the area of health and safety is the works council (ondernemingsraad) or in smaller organisations the personnel delegation (personeelsvertegenwoordiging), sometimes also known as the staff representation body, where this exists. Both bodies also have a wide range of other responsibilities.

In addition works councils will often set up a standing committee (vaste commissie) to deal with health and safety issues. This committee is normally known as a safety, health, well-being and environment committee (Veiligheid, Gezondheid, Welzijn en Milieu Commissie – VGWM-commissie), although sometimes it does not include the environment. A majority of the members of the committee must also be members of the works council.

Numbers and structure

Works councils should be set up in all organisations employing at least 50 people and its size increases with the number employed (see table).

The works council, which is a purely employee body, should elect both a chair and a deputy chair.

A personnel delegation should be set up in organisations with between 10 and 49 employees, where the employer decides to set it up, or where a majority of employees request it.

The decision on setting up a health and safety committee is taken by the works council, although a majority of the committee’s members must be works council members and it is also an entirely employee body.

Research by the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work (EU-OSHA) in 2014 found that 12% of workplaces in the Netherlands had a health and safety committee. This is below the EU-28 average of 21% (The figures are for workplaces with five or more employees.)[1] However, a separate EU-OSHA report on worker participation in 2017 suggested that 2014 results might be based on some “confusion” between different forms of employee representation, leading to the figures for separate health and safety committees being overstated.[2]

Separate national figures for 2016 found that only 8% of workplaces had either a works council (OR) or a personnel delegation (PVT). However, the frequency with which they were found increased with the number employed. While only 3% of workplaces with fewer than 10 employees had a personnel delegation, this increased to 18% for workplaces with 10 to 49 employees. At workplaces with 50 or more employees, where the law states that works councils must be established, 71% had them.[3]

Tasks and rights

The employer should consult the works council or personnel delegation on issues relating to “working conditions policy” (health and safety) and its implementation. The legislation states that this should involve “an active exchange of information”. Where there is no employee representation, the employer should consult employees directly.

Importantly, the works council can, if it chooses, delegate all or part of its powers in the area of health and safety to the committee, which can then exercise all the rights set out below. The only exception is the power to institute legal proceedings.

The works council (or health and safety committee – see above) or personnel delegation has the right to have confidential discussions with labour inspectors when they visit the workplace, as well as to accompany them in their inspections, unless this would hinder the inspectors’ work. The works council or personnel delegation have the right to submit requests to the health and safety authorities that they should intervene and they should also be sent reports produced by the inspectors.

The works council or personnel delegation should also be informed by and cooperate with the employer’s own health and safety experts about measures that have been taken or are being planned to improve working conditions as well as how they are implemented. The works council or personnel delegation should also be given a copy of any advice on risks and risk assessment and the results of employees’ medical examinations provided by the occupational physician, although in a form which prevents individuals being identified.

Specifically, the legislation provides a clear role for the works council in being informed about, and having the opportunity to express its view on, a wide range of potential hazards, including asbestos, biological agents, noise and radiation.

The works council’s agreement is required where the employer wishes to make changes to internal regulations relating to working conditions. And, since legal changes in July 2017, the works council or personnel delegation has the right to approve the appointment of the prevention worker (preventiemedewerker), an employee who has a key health and safety role (see below).

More generally, in order to provide greater flexibility, employers and the works council can reach agreements on health and safety issues, which differ from the precise requirements of the legislation, provided there is no worsening in the level of protection.

The requirement for the expert health and safety service, occupational physician and prevention worker to cooperate with the works council or personnel delegation in health and safety issues has been strengthened by the 2017 legal changes.

Frequency of meetings

The works council itself decides how frequently both it and the health and safety committee – if one has been set up – will meet. However, it must also meet the employer at least twice a year to discuss the general operation of the organisation.

Election and term of office

Works council members are elected by the whole workforce on the basis of lists of nominations from the unions present in the workplace or nominations from the non-union members. The term of office is normally three years, although it can be shortened to two or extended to four.

The personnel delegation, where it exists, is elected by a direct ballot of all employees.

It is up to the works council to decide whether to set up a committee to cover health and safety (it can also set up committees on other issues). This is done by a formal resolution and the works council must also inform the employer in writing of the intention to do so, as well as setting out the duties, composition, rules of procedure and powers of the committee. The works council chooses the membership of the committee and the membership ends with the term of office of the works council.

Resources, time off and training

The exact amount of time off for members of the works council and the health and safety committee is to be agreed with the employer, but as a minimum members of the works council and the health and safety committee are entitled to 60 hours paid time off per year, in addition to time in meetings.

The employer is required to provide the facilities necessary for the works council and the health and safety committee, where this has been set up, to function. Both the works council and the health and safety committee are entitled to invite experts to their meetings and to ask the expert to provide written advice. These experts are paid by the employer, provided he or she has been informed in advance.

Members of the works council and the health and safety committee are also entitled to paid time off for training. Employees who are just members of the health and safety committee are entitled to three days a year; those who are just members of the works council are entitled to five days a year; and those who are on both the works council and the health and safety committee are entitled to eight days a year. The Works Council Act contains provisions for an employer levy to pay for the training of works council members.

Protection against dismissal

Members of the works council and the health and safety committee, if it has been set up, should not be disadvantaged because of their role. Works council members and members of the health and safety committee can only be dismissed if the worker himself or herself agrees in writing, or if it has been authorised by a magistrate. This authorisation will only be given if there are serious reasons for immediate dismissal or the company, or part of it, closes. Any connection between the dismissal and works council membership makes the dismissal unlawful.

Other elements of workplace health and safety

Employers are obliged to obtain assistance from an expert health and safety service (arbodienst) or an occupational physician in carrying out the health and safety tasks that the legislation requires. This includes carrying out a risk assessment, advising employees who are unable to work because of sickness and conducting an occupational health review. This expert assistance can be provided internally or it can be provided by an external qualified occupational health service. In both cases the arrangements must be agreed by the works council or personnel delegation. Where it is provided externally a “basic contract” must be drawn up, setting out the rights and duties of the two sides. Changes to the legislation introduced in July 2017 added additional elements to this contract, such as the right for the occupational physician to visit the workplace and right of an employee to make a complaint about the health and safety service.[4]

As well as an expert health and safety service or occupational physician, the employer must also appoint a so-called “prevention worker” (preventiemedewerker). This is an individual who is not a health and safety expert (as defined by the legislation), but who supports the employer in health and safety matters. In smaller companies, those with no more than 25 employees, the employer can take this role. Since 2017, the works council or personnel has the right to approve the appointment of this prevention worker.

Organisations can also decide to appoint a so-called person of confidence (Vertrouwenspersoon), whose role is to give support to fellow employees who have suffered violence, bullying or sexual harassment. It is not obligatory to appoint such a person, and, where it is done, the ministry responsible (see below) suggests that the works council is consulted.[5]

National context

The ministry responsible for health and safety at work is the Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment (Ministerie van Sociale Zaken en Werkgelegenheid). The body responsible for ensuring compliance with Dutch health and safety law is the Ministry’s Inspectorate (Inspectie SZW) which also monitors compliance with labour and social security law more generally.

Trade unions and employers are able to influence health and safety policy at national level through their membership of the Social Economic Council (Sociaal-Economische Raad– SER) as well as in the Council’s health and safety committee, the Committee for Working Conditions (Commissie Arbeidsomstandigheden – known as ARBO). The Social Economic Council is a tripartite body with 11 members from the unions, 11 from the employers and 11 so-called “crown” members, who are independent experts nominated by the government. It has a very important consultative role.[6]

Dutch health and safety law (Working Conditions Act, 1999) was amended in 2007 to include a specific reference to “employment-related psychosocial pressure” (psychosociale arbeidsbelasting). It requires the employer to operate a policy with the aim of preventing this, or limiting it, if prevention is not possible (Article 3.2).

Key legislation

Act of 18 March 1999, containing provisions to improve working conditions (Working Conditions Act), as amended

Works Council Act 1971, as amended

Wet van 18 maart 1999, houdende bepalingen ter verbetering van de arbeidsomstandigheden (Arbeidsomstandighedenwet - Arbowet)

Wet op de ondernemingsraden 1971

[1] Second European Survey of Enterprises on New and Emerging Risks, European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, 2016

[2] Worker participation in the management of occupational safety and health — qualitative evidence from ESENER-2: Country report – the Netherlands, by Jan Popma, Bernard van Lammeren, EU-OSHA 2017

[3] Arbo in Bedrijf 2016, Inspectie SZW, March 2016

[4] See OSH system at national level – Netherlands, by Jan Harmen Kwantes and Wendela Hooftman, OSH Wiki, https://oshwiki.eu/wiki/OSH_system_at_national_level_-_Netherlands

[5] See https://www.arboportaal.nl/onderwerpen/vertrouwenspersoon

[6] For more information on the national context see OSH system at national level – Netherlands, OSH Wiki

Around one in seven employees (14%) are union members in the Netherlands, and the proportion has been falling in recent years. There are two main union groupings, the FNV – the larger of the two – and the CNV, with a third smaller organisation, the VCP primarily representing more specialist staff. 1

Union density and structure

Figures published by the Netherlands statistical office (CBS), using statistics provided by the unions, indicate that there were 1,426,00 trade unionists in the Netherlands in 2025. 2 However, many of these members are older than the state retirement age. It was more than a fifth (21.9%) in 2023. 3 Separate, survey-based statistics also published the CBS show that 16.0% of employees were union members in 2024. 4 This figure is higher than the estimates of the OECD database of union membership, which put union density at 13.8% in 2023. 5

As in most other countries, the CBS figures indicate significant differences in union density between industries. The highest density is in education at 27.4%, followed by public administration at 26.0% and transport and logistics at 25.5%. Retail and wholesale commerce on the other hand is at 9.0% and density in hotels and catering is at 8.1%. 6

The largest trade union grouping in the Netherlands is the FNV, which had 873,000 members in 2023. 7 The other main union grouping, the CNV, is considerably smaller with 199,000. Both the FNV and the CNV organise manual and non-manual workers.

The FNV and CNV trace their roots back to organisations with a clear religious or political orientation. The FNV emerged from the merger of the socialist and the catholic union federations in 1975; the CNV still describes itself as a Christian union and comes from a tradition of Protestant trade unionism. The third major union grouping is the VCP (formerly MHP), which was set up in 1974 to represent senior staff facing increasing pressure at the workplace. It has 156,000 members.

These three union groupings are all represented in the major tripartite body, the Social and Economic Council (SER), where they sit with representatives of the employers and the government, as well as on the bipartite Labour Foundation (Stichting van de Arbeid), together the main employers’ associations (see Joint employer/union body at national level).

There are also a number of smaller unions, often representing specific occupational groups, which are not represented in these bodies. They have a total of 198,000 members (see Individual unions).

Individual unions

The largest Dutch union grouping, the FNV, is unusual, as it is both a confederation and a single large union. In January 2015, following a major discussion and a series of decisions in individual union congresses, five, previously separate, FNV affiliates, including the three largest, merged into a single union, also called FNV. The remaining FNV affiliates remained outside this single union structure but continued to be affiliated as before. The current position is that the single union had 695,329 members in 2024 with the independent affiliates making up the remaining around 178,101, taking the total to 873,430. 8

The single union is split into 10 sectors, with separate sectors for “seniors” and youth. The seniors’ sector is the biggest in terms of membership with 153,380 members, followed by healthcare and welfare with 115,429, government with 86,357, metal with 64,266 and services with 62,359.

There are 13 independent affiliates, most covering specific occupations such as journalists, the police military personnel and professional footballers. The largest independent affiliate is the teachers’ union AOb, which had 83,000 members in 2023. 9

The CNV is now also a single union, which, unlike the FNV, now includes everyone. At a special congress on 27 March 2024 the delegates agreed that the two big unions left in the CNV after a series of mergers, CNV Connectief (in the public sector), and CNV Vakmensen (in the private sector), should join with CNV Jongeren (the youth section) and the confederation itself, CNV Vakcentrale to create a single organisation. 10

This new CNV is organised in 10 industry sectors, including healthcare and welfare, government, education and transport, plus four special sections for seniors, young workers, the self-employed and individuals facing particular problems like disability. 11

The third union grouping, VCP, has more than 50 individual union organisations linked to it, based on specific professions and companies. 12 A key reason why unions join the VCP is to have representation in the national level bipartite and tripartite bodies (see Joint employer/union body at national level).

Two-thirds of the unions in VCP are affiliated indirectly through separate union federations. These are CMHF Overheid, to which eight unions in central and local government belong, FvOV, which brings together 12 unions in different parts of education, GOV|MHB, which is made up of four associations of middle and high-ranking staff in defence, and UOV, a network of nine organisations in specific companies and occupations

The direct affiliates of VCP include the police union ACP, which was previously an affiliate of the CNV but left in 2012, another police union, Equipe, the pilots’ union, VNV, VHKP, a union representing senior staff at the airline company KLM, as well as Unie, a union which organises across a wide range of industries and services, and NU’91, a specialist nurses’ union with around 40,000 members. 13

The VCP gained a significant boost in 2017, when Unie, UOV and the pensioners’ organisation, ANBO, joined it in June. 14 Unie had previously been part of MHP, VCP’s predecessor organisation, but left it in 2013. However, ANBO, which had previously been part of the FNV, left VCP in 2019. In 2024, it merged with another pensioners’ organisation to form ANBO-PCOB. 15

Outside the main confederations there are a number of individual unions, based on specific sectors. The largest of these is the Ambtenarencentrum (AC), which is estimated to have around 60,000 members 16 and is a confederation of 11 primarily public sector unions. Another important group is the FBZ, which itself is a federation of 29 specialist health service associations with a total of 45,000 members. 17

There are also company-based unions, like W.I.M. which organises workers in IKEA,

MVP Panteia, whose members work at the consultancy company Panteia, and the employees’ association for the tug company Adriaan Kooren. 18

Finally, there are smaller general unions like the LBV, which argues for a “good, fair and appropriate income for everyone”, 19 the AVV, which presents itself as alternative to traditional trade unionism and allows non-union members to vote on decisions on collective agreements, the ABW, which is regionally based, and the RMU, which is a Christian organisation, for entrepreneurs as well as worker and students.

The LBV’s willingness to sign some collective agreements has been criticised by other unions as undermining their demands (see Collective bargaining) and the AVV’s independence has been questioned because of the financial support it receives from sectoral funds, with only 15.1% of its income coming from member contributions. 20

Political position

Neither the FNV nor the CNV has formal ties with any political parties although the FNV is traditionally closer to the Dutch labour party PvdA, and the CNV to the Christian democrats. The VCP emphasises that it is a body without religious or political connections.

An indication of the link between the FNV and the PvdA is that Lodewijk Asscher, the former leader of the PvdA, was appointed by the court to head the FNV in the crisis that hit the union body in 2025. 21

Legal framework

Trade union rights in the Netherlands are protected by the constitution which recognises freedom of association in Article 8: “The right of association shall be recognised. This right may be restricted by Act of Parliament in the interest of public order.”

Certain aspects of trade union activity are regulated through legislation on collective bargaining, in particular the Collective Bargaining Act (Wet CAO). For example, to bargaining, a trade union must have a legal personality and rules which allow it to conduct negotiations (see Collective bargaining). However, there is no legislation setting out how Dutch unions must behave, with problems, such as those relating to strikes, left to decisions of the courts (see Industrial action). Since 1980 these decisions have been influenced by the need to comply with the European Social Charter, which the Netherlands ratified in that year. This covers the right to organise in Article 5 and the right to bargaining collectively, including the right to strike in Article 6.

Membership trends

Overall union membership has declined continuously in recent years, dropping from 1.87 million in 2010 to 1.44 million in 2023, a fall of almost a quarter (22.9%). 22These figures also include a growing number of pensioners, at least in the most recent period. Between 2017 and 2023, the proportion of members aged above the retirement age increased from 18.7% to 21.9%. 23

With the number of employees growing at a time when union membership was falling, there has been a clear fall in union density. 24 Figures from the national statistical agency CBS, show that the proportion of employees organised in unions, which was 18.4% in 2018 had fallen to 16.0% in 2024, although this represented a slight uptick on 2023, when it union density was 15.4%. 25

The FNV, in particular, has reacted to this loss of membership with targeted organising campaigns aimed at cleaners and other marginalised workers. 26

It not clear whether the decline in union membership has affected all union groups equally, as past transfers between confederations, in particular from CNV to VCP, make the figures difficult to interpret. Overall union membership fell by 23.7% between 2010 and 2025 from 1,870,000 to 1,426,000, with the membership of CNV unions down by 40.8%% and FNV unions falling by 27.1% .The VCP, which benefited from new unions joining in 2017 (see Individual unions), saw its membership rise by 20.9% over the same period, while membership in other unions fell by 4.3%. 27

Women

The most recent official figures from the CBS show that there are more men than women in unions. Of the 1,441,000 union members in 2023, 891,000 (62%) were men and 550,000 (38%) were women. 28

As almost half of all employees are women, the union density figures are lower for women than men. While 17.2% of male employees were in unions in 2024, the figure for female employees was 14.7%. The overall figure was 16.0%. 29

The vast majority of employees in the Netherlands are covered by collective bargaining, mostly at industry level. However, many large companies negotiate their own deals. Negotiators generally follow the recommendations agreed at national level and, at least until recently, pay demands and pay increases have been moderate. 30

Collective bargaining coverage and structure

The pay and conditions of most employees are set through collective agreements (CAOs) reached either at industry or at company level, although industry-level agreements cover many more employees.

Collective agreements must be registered with the Ministry for Social Affairs and Employment and its report on collective agreements in 2025, published in May 2025, shows that there were 666 current regular collective agreements on 13 January 2025. (There were also 279 collective agreements on other issues, such as social plans, social funds and pensions.) 31

These 666 regular agreements covered 6,144,000 employees and, with the CBS official statistics office showing that there were 8,572,000 employees in the Netherlands in the last quarter of 2024, 32 this suggests that 71.7% of all employees were covered by collective bargaining.

This is not the only measure of collective bargaining coverage in the Netherlands. The CBS has recently started to produce its own figures on the number of employees covered by collective bargaining, based on the data employers submit as part of their digital tax return for individual employees. These figures, produced at the request of the Ministry for Social Affairs and Employment, show 6,256,700 employees were covered by collective bargaining in 2024, out of a total of 8,626,900 employees, producing a collective bargaining coverage rate of 72.5%. 33

Both sets of figures have some methodological weaknesses, as indicated by a 2024 study by De Burcht, the research institute of the unions. 34 However, the fact that the two different methods produce very similar results suggests that the figures are broadly correct.

The OECD estimates, which are drawn from the Ministry rather than the CBS figures, show bargaining coverage at 72.1% in 2024. 35

There are more company than industry-level agreements: in January 2025, there were 175 regular agreements signed at industry level and 491 signed at company-level. 36 However, both the figures from the Ministry for Social Affairs and Employment and those from the CBS show that agreements at industry level account for the vast majority of those covered by collective bargaining

A report from the Ministry on bargaining in 2024 estimates that industry-level agreements covered 5,765,000 employees or 67.7% of all employees, and company-level agreements only 418,000, or 4.9% of all employees. 37 The CBS figures give greater weight to company-level agreements, estimating they covered 648,100 employees, 7.5% of the total, in 2024, compared with 5,608,600, 65.0% of the total, covered by industry agreements.

However, although company-level agreements cover fewer employees, they set terms and conditions for many of the country’s largest companies, such as Philips, DHL, Heineken, Akzo Nobel, ABN-AMRO, ING-Bank and the railway company NS.

Variations in collective bargaining coverage

There are substantial variations in collective bargaining coverage between industries in the Netherlands, as well as the extent to which negotiations are conducted at industry or company level.

Th CBS figures, which show the proportion of employees covered by different levels of collective bargaining make this clear (see table), although figures breaking down the number of employees between industry and company-level agreements are not available for all industries.

The figures for 1 July 2024 show that there are seven industries, where levels of collective bargaining coverage are above 80%. These are agriculture and fisheries, energy supply, construction, hotels and catering, public administration, education and health and social care, and in all cases, where the information is published, bargaining in these industries is overwhelmingly at industry level.

This is also the case in most of the industries with lower levels of overall coverage, although the dominance of industry level bargaining is less marked in mining and quarrying (10.9% industry and 8.3% company), transport and logistics (42.4% industry and 29.3% company), information and communication (9.8% industry and 6.1% company) and specialist services (11.8% industry and 5.6% company).

Information and communication, where 15.8% are covered overall, and specialist services, where overage coverage is 17.4%, are the industries where levels of collective bargaining is lowest.

There is only one industry, financial services, where company-level agreements, on 44.8%, cover more employees than industry-level agreements, on 12.2%.

Proportion of employees covered by collective agreements broken down between industry and company-level deals: 2024

Source: Werknemers naar soort CAO en SBI naar achtergrondkenmerken, 2010-2024, Tabel 1 CBS, 07.10.2025 https://www.cbs.nl/-/media/_excel/2025/41/werknemers-naar-soort-cao-en-sbi-naar-achtergrondkenmerken-2010-2024.xlsx

Extending agreements

Dutch legislation allows the government (the Ministry for Social Affairs and Employment) to extend – to declare generally binding – industry-level agreements to all the employers in the industry concerned. The decision to extend is taken in line with a regulated framework which requires that the agreement must already apply to a “significant majority” of those working in the industry. 38 This is automatically the case if 60% are covered and will normally be the case if the agreement covers 55% of the industry’s employees, unless the coverage is skewed in some way. Agreements which cover fewer than 55% will only be extended in special circumstances.

In practice, most industry-level collective agreements are declared generally binding. This was the case for 99 out of 175 (57%) in 2024. 39 However, extending agreements in this way has a relatively modest impact on the numbers of employees covered. Overall, in 2024, extensions accounted for around a sixth (17%) of those covered by industry collective agreements. The bulk of those whose pay and conditions were set by industry-level agreements – 4.8 million out of 5.8 million – were covered because their employers belonged to employers’ associations which had signed the agreements.

Allowing local variations

The Dutch collective bargaining system provides a mechanism for individual companies to opt-out of the terms of an industry-level agreement, including one that has been extended by the government to all employees in the industry concerned.

However, this exemption (dispensatie) requires that the original agreement contains:

• a clear indication of who must be contacted to ask for exemption;
• clear conditions that must be met if the exemption is to be granted; and
• a description of the process with specific deadlines.

Many agreements include these terms, but not all. A study by the Ministry for Social Affairs and Employment in 2016 found that half of the (57 out of 115 agreements) contained exemption terms set out in this way. 40The ministry can still exempt a company from the effects of a collective agreement, even if the original agreement does not contain the appropriate wording, but the application is less likely to be successful.

The 2016 study also looked at the reasons for the exemptions to the application of an industry agreement and found that they were largely either because of “compelling circumstances”, typically financial difficulties, or because the employment conditions at the company were different but “equivalent” to those provided in the industry agreement.

Who negotiates?

Collective bargaining is normally conducted between employers or employers’ federations on one side and trade unions or groups of unions on the other (see Trade unions).

There are few rules governing those who are entitled to bargain. The only requirement placed on trade unions is that the union should have a legal personality and that its rules should give it authority to bargain. This lack of restrictions on trade unions' freedom to negotiate is matched by similar freedoms for the employers. Dutch employers and employers' organisation have no legal obligation to negotiate with trade unions. Collective agreements between unions and employers depend entirely on both sides' willingness to negotiate. Normally bargaining is conducted on the union side by the full-time trade union officials, with the involvement of lay union representatives.

Union negotiators at both industry and company level work within a framework of recommendations coming from the confederations centrally, which are largely observed. These follow the traditional autumn meeting between unions, employers and the government who meet at national level in the Labour Foundation (see Joint employer/union body at national level) to exchange views about economic prospects. The result for many years was a series of relatively moderate pay demands. However, this may be changing (see Trends in collective bargaining).

There are no rules on which unions have the right to take part in negotiations and sign agreements. It is for the parties to decide who they want to negotiate with. In recent years, there have been reports that some employers have bypassed the FNV, the largest union grouping, to reach less onerous agreements with smaller unions.

A 2024 study by the Ministry for Social Affairs and Employment, looking at agreements signed between 2005 and 2022, does not give direct support to this view. Instead, it suggests that it has been the VCP, the smallest of the three main union groupings, that has been bypassed. The study found that, while the number of agreements involving the FNV fluctuated between 85% and 95% over the period, and the number of agreements involving the CNV (the second-largest union grouping), ranged between 60% and 71%, depending on the year, the number involving a VCP union was on a downward trajectory for most of the period. 41 It fell fairly steadily from 45% in 2011 to 25% in 2022, with slight upticks in 2015 and 2020.

The involvement of unions outside these three main groups was more varied. While the number of agreements involving the small general unions, varied sharply from year to year, between 3% and 7%, sectoral unions had a more steady but still slight upwards trend and varied between 4% and 9%. The involvement of company unions in collective agreements showed less change, remaining constant at between 1% and 3% over the whole period.

This does not mean that there are no cases where the larger unions have expressed concern about agreements signed by smaller unions. In April 2025 the FNV and CNV both objected to the fact that the small general union LBV had signed a three-year agreement covering agency workers, questioning its independence and the support it had among the workers concerned. 42 The issue of union independence is one of the areas, where in advice provided to the government in July 2025, the joint union-employer body, the Labour Foundation, is suggesting that the government takes further action. 43

Works councils do not normally negotiate pay increases with employers, although they are involved in negotiations to implement elements of industry level agreements such as pay structures and the organisation of working time. In 2018 the retail chain Jumbo argued that it had reached an agreement with its works council rather than the unions, but in 2019 the court found that the collective agreement with the unions had not been terminated and was still valid. 44

Industrial action

There is no legislation which sets out the rights and obligations of strikers, although strikes are referred to in other legislation, for example, in the legislation on the provision of agency workers, where agencies should not provide staff to work in companies where workers are on strike. 45 In general, the rules for conducting legal strikes have developed through decisions of the courts, and, since 1980 these decisions have been influenced by the need to comply with the Article 6 (4) European Social Charter, which the Netherlands ratified in that year. 46

On the basis of judicial decisions, it has been accepted that strikes may be called by unions or groups of workers and should concern labour-related issues. There is no obligation for a ballot to be held before a strike. There is also no statutory system of mediation or arbitration, although this is included in some collective agreements.

The courts in the Netherlands have, however, been ready to look at other issues to determine whether they consider strikes to be lawful and, therefore, whether they can go ahead.

In the past, courts ruled that strikes had to meet specific procedural rules, such as providing adequate notice, as well as being used as a last resort, and, if this was not the case, courts would rule that they should not go ahead.

However, in an important judgement in 2015 the Dutch Supreme Court took greater account of Article G of the Revised European Social Charter, which states that the right to strike, as well as other rights, cannot be subject to restrictions or limitations “except such as are prescribed by law and are necessary in a democratic society for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others or for the protection of public interest, national security, public health, or morals.” 47

In this judgement, known as the Amsta case, the Supreme Court concluded that the requirements for prior notification and deadlock between the parties – thus making a strike the last resort – were no longer preconditions to a strike being considered lawful, but instead needed to be considered as part of the overall assessment as to whether a strike was permissible.

The issues that should be considered in determining whether a strike is permissible included, in the view of the Supreme Court:

• the nature and duration of the action;
• the relationship between the action and the goal it aims to achieve;
• the damage consequently caused to the interests of the employer or third parties; and
• the nature of these interests and this damage. 48

This approach still means that the courts may determine that a strike should not go ahead if it judged to be too damaging to the employer, or that those organising the strike should take action to reduce the damage. For example, a planned strike by ground staff at Schiphol airport in the summer of 2016 was banned by the courts because they considered it would be too damaging to Schiphol and its main airline KLM. On the other hand, a similar strike in April 2022 was permitted by the courts because it was not during high season.

There no specific rules setting minimum levels of service in essential services during strikes in the Netherlands, and no definition of essential services. However, the Supreme Court’s identification of the issues to be considered in determining whether a strike should be permitted – in particular the damage caused to the interests of third parties and the nature of these interests and this damage – means that strikes, in services seen as essential, potentially face restrictions. The Court has also indicated that, if services such as public transport or health are affected by industrial action, restrictions on the right to strike may be more urgently required. 49

The statistics show an increase in the number of strikes in the last few years. They averaged 24 a year in the 10 years from 2020 to 2019, with the highest number of strikes – 32 – in 2017. Since COVID, in the three years 2022 to 2024, there have been an average of 40 strikes a year. There were 36 in 2024. However, the more recent strikes have involved fewer workers, on average 18,400 a year between 2022 and 2024, compared with 71,800 a year between 2010 and 2019.

Length and timing of agreements

The legislation limits the maximum length to five years, but more typically they last around one or two years. One reason why two years is a common duration is that this is the maximum length of time an agreement which has been declared generally binding can last (subject to a one-off one-year extension).

There is often a gap between the end of one agreement and the start of another, although agreements maintain their validity over this period.

There is no specific timetable for agreements, although many agreements start either in January or in April or July.

Subjects covered in agreements

Collective agreements in the Netherland cover a wide range of issues. Normal pay and conditions agreements deal with pay, hours and holidays, as well as linked topics like salary systems, overtime and shift rates, working time arrangements and special leave. However, they also cover broader issues like early retirement, educational leave, the organisation of leave over the whole of an employee’s working life, the position of women, protecting those with disabilities and the environment.

In some cases, industry level agreements are effectively framework agreements, with higher pay and many of the detailed provisions relating to conditions, particularly working time being set at company level.

In addition, increasingly agreements provide for a range of benefits, from which individual employees can choose. Agreements also cover procedural issues like the powers and status of members of works councils and union groups at the workplace.

The 2025 report on collective bargaining by the Ministry for Social Affairs and Employment shows that as well as 666 normal pay and conditions agreements there were also 279 collective agreements on other issues, such as social plans, social funds and pensions. 50

Trends in collective bargaining

There are two sources for information on collective bargaining coverage in the Netherlands, the figures from the Ministry for Social Affairs and Employment, based on registered agreements, and those from the official statistics office, the CBS, based on information submitted by employers. Over the period since 2015, both show the same broad trend, although in the period 2010 to 2015 the Ministry figures show a steeper decline.

Since 2015, the Ministry figures show that the number covered by collective bargaining has risen fairly consistently from 5,486,400 to reach 6,144,000 in 2025. However, a more rapid increase in the number of employees in the Netherlands means that, on this basis, collective bargaining coverage has fallen from 75.5% in 2015 to 72%. 51

The CBS figures also show the absolute number of those covered by collective bargaining rising after 2014. However, on this basis too, coverage, as a percentage of all employees has fallen steadily, from 75.6 in 2014 to 72.5% in 2024, although there has been a slight improvement since 2022, when it was 72.0%.

As a 2025 report by the joint employer/union Labour Foundation (Stichting van de Arbeid) noted that “the collective labour agreement coverage ratio (the share of all employees covered by a collective labour agreement) in the Netherlands has been declining in recent years”, although “it remains above 70%, and the absolute number of employees covered by a collective labour agreement has not decreased”. It suggested that declining coverage ratio might have several causes, but that an in-depth analysis was lacking. 52

The report noted that “the growth in the share of flexible work, the increasing dynamism of new activities, professions and sectors, the emergence of new sub-sectors where no collective labour agreement parties are (yet) active, the growth of (sub)sectors without a collective labour agreement tradition and the fact that membership of an association is becoming less and less self-evident could be possible explanations, but it is not clear whether and to what extent these developments actually affect the collective labour agreement coverage ratio.”

The report, which was requested by the government, makes a series of suggestions for increasing collective bargaining coverage so that it is above the 80% threshold set by the EU’s adequate minimum wage directive ((EU) 2022/2041). These include:

• research into areas not covered by bargaining to establish the reasons for this;
• involving more employees, including those who are not union-members, in the bargaining process;
• giving unions greater access to the workplace;
• providing greater opportunities for increased customisation of agreements, with works councils or unions at company level able to make adjustments;
• ensuring that universally binding collective agreements include exemption mechanisms;
• including new provisions on union independence in collective bargaining legislation; and
• promoting the values of collective bargaining more widely.

Recent years have also seen a change in the bargaining approach of the largest union grouping, the FNV. In 2018 it called for a 5% increase for 2019, at a time when inflation was 1.9%, the highest union pay demand for 30 years. 53 This was followed by the same demand in 2019 for bargaining in 2020 and appears to indicate a more muscular approach to pay bargaining. The demand for 2025, was for a 7% pay increase at a time (September 2024) when inflation was 3.5%. As the chief union negotiator said at the time, “Wages have been lagging behind for years because there has been no improvement in purchasing power. To ensure that people have more to spend, we will focus on improving purchasing power next year instead of simply maintaining it.” 54

Minimum wage

The Netherlands has a national minimum wage which is increased twice a year, in January and July, in line with the average increase in negotiated pay, although the government can, and has, intervened to increase it by more than the increase in negotiated rates. However, the full amount is only paid to workers aged 21 and older. Younger workers get less: 80% of the full rate for 20-year-olds, 60% for 19-year-olds, and 50% for 18-year-olds. Those aged 17 get just 40% of the full rate and those aged 16 just 35%. 55

Joint employer/union body at national level

Unions, employers and independent experts come together in the Social and Economic Council (SER), which is a statutory body, whose task is to provide advice to the government and the parliament on economic and social issues. The SER consists of 11 union representatives (eight from the FNV, two from the CNV and one from VCP), 11 employers’ representatives and 11 experts, known as crown members. Representatives of government departments also attend as observers. 56 Its reports play an important role in developing public policy.

Unions also participate in the Labour Foundation (Stichting van de Arbeid) which is a bilateral body involving only the employers’ associations and the union confederations, with three representatives from the FNV and two each from the CNV and VCP. It was here that the influential Wassenaar Agreement, which removed direct state invention in pay and committed the unions to wage moderation was signed in 1982.

Employee representation at the workplace is essentially through works councils elected by all workers. They must be set up in all workplaces with at least 50 workers and two-thirds of workplaces of this size have them. There are other arrangements for smaller workplaces.

The basic structure

The main channel for employee representation in the Netherlands is through the works council, a body elected by and representing all employees. Some collective agreements, including the major metal working agreement, give trade unions limited rights at work, largely relating to the unions’ own activities, but this is not universal.

Every undertaking in the Netherlands with at least 50 workers is obliged to set up a works council (OR) with a range of information and consultation rights. In addition, undertakings with between 10 and 49 employees are required to set up a personnel delegation (PVT), a body with some of the powers of the works council, if a majority of employees request it, although this is relatively rare (see The extent of workplace representation ).

The extent of the works council's powers varies according to the issue involved. In broad terms the works council must be informed and consulted about economic issues but on social issues it must approve any changes (see Tasks and rights).

Works councils were first introduced by law in 1950, and their extent and powers have gradually been extended since then. The bulk of the current legal framework for works councils is set out in the Works Councils Act of 1979, which was extended to smaller companies in 1981, and has been revised in relatively minor ways on a fairly regular basis since that date. For example, changes, which came into effect in January 2019, imposed a new obligation on larger employers to discuss directors’ pay with the works council, and strengthened works councils’ rights in relation to pension agreements. 57

The extent of workplace representation

Although the legislation states that any “enterprise in which normally at least 50 persons are working shall … establish a works council”, they do not exist in all undertakings of this size, although they are normally present. A study undertaken on behalf of the Ministry for Social Affairs and Employment shows that, in 2023, slightly over two-thirds (69%) of workplaces with more than 50 employees had a works council. 58 Works councils are more common in larger than smaller workplaces. Almost nine out of 10 (89%) of workplaces with more than 200 employees had a works council but six out of 10 (58%) of those with 50 to 99 employees, and eight out of 10 (78%) for those with between 100 and 199 employees. There are also difference between industries, with only half (50%) of establishments with at least 50 employees in retail, wholesale, repair, hotels and catering having a works council, compared with 93% of establishments of a similar size in government and related services.

In organisations with between 10 and 49 employees – in other words, below the obligatory works council threshold, 6% had a works council, 7% had a joint works council (with another workplace – see Numbers and composition ) and only 11% had a personnel delegation. Three-quarters (74%) of organisations of this size had no form or employee representation.

Where personnel delegations have been established this had normally been the result of a voluntary decision of by the employer (72% of cases). The study found that only 3% had been set up solely because of a request of the majority of employees, while another 25% had been the result of a common wish of both the employer and a majority of employees to have a personnel delegation.

Studies on compliance with the works council legislation have been carried out regularly for the Ministry for Social Affairs and Employment, since 2002, and its authors suggest that over this period “there appears to be no clear upward or downward trend”, with compliance ranging from 78% (2005) to 67% (2017).

Examining why, despite a legal obligation, so many establishments with 50 or more employees did not have a works council the 2023 study, like the previous study carried out in 2017, found that the reason most frequently mentioned by the employer was that the “staff don’t need one”. In 2023, six out of 10 employers without a works council (62%) gave this as the reason why they did not have one, with 44% saying that there were “sufficient other forms of consultation” with employees, and 35% reporting that there were not enough candidates. (More than one answer was possible.)

However, the view of employees in establishments without a works council was different. Less than a fifth (18%) said it was because the employees did not need it while three out of 10 (29%) said it was because the employer did not want one.

Comparisons with elsewhere in Europe, taken from Eurofound’s 2019 European Company Survey indicate that employee representation at workplace level is found about as frequently in the Netherlands as in the rest of the EU27. In 2019, 29% of establishments in the Netherlands with at least 10 employees had employee representation, either through a works council or a personnel delegation. This compares with the EU27 average of 28.5%. 59

The role of unions

Works councils are not trade union bodies, although the unions have nomination rights (see Election and term of office ) and many works council members are also union members. However, it is also very common to find that some of the works council members are not in a union and in some cases trade unionists are in a minority, or even not present at all. The 2023 study for the Ministry for Social Affairs and Employment found that there was a link between the level of union organisation in a workplace and the existence of a works council. The percentage of workplaces with a works council was six percentage points lower than the average (63% rather than the average of 69%) when under 10% of the workforce were unionised, whereas when 26% to 50% of the workforce were union members, the percentage with a works council was 15 percentage points higher (84% rather than 69%). 60

The proportion of trade unionists among works council members was not examined in the 2023 study, but a joint German-Dutch study looking at works councils in the two countries found that, in 2014, 39% of works council members in the Netherlands were union members compared with 68% in Germany. 61

Trade unionists have a basic right to organise at work but, unlike the situation in other European states, such as France, Spain or Italy, in the Netherlands they have no statutory right to specific facilities. However, in some areas, collective agreements give unions some additional rights at the workplace.

Numbers and composition

A works council should be set up once there are 50 people working in the enterprise “as a rule”. This number of those working includes employees but also temporary agency workers, if they worked there for at least 24 months. It can also include other individuals who regularly perform work for the business, but who do not have an employment contract, but only if the employer and the works council jointly decide that this should be the case. The “as a rule” reference potentially means that some temporary workers could be excluded but part-timers are counted in exactly the same way as those working full time.

An employer with two enterprises, which separately have fewer than 50 workers but together have more than 50, is required to set up a joint works council (GeOR) “if this is in the interest of the proper implementation of the Act”. It is also possible to set up a separate works council for part of an enterprise with at least 50 workers, again “if this is in the interest of the proper implementation of the Act”.

The numbers of members of the works council varies with the number employed, as set out below. The works council consists entirely of employees.

Thereafter there are two additional members for each 1,000 employees up to a maximum of 25.

It is possible to have more than these minimum numbers with the agreement of the employer, and, in practice, the 2023 study for the Ministry for Social Affairs and Employment found that this was often the case. In employers with between 50 and 100 employers, where the minimum number of seats is five, 63% had between five and seven; 14% had fewer than five; and 24% had seven or more.

The operation of the works council

The works council elects its own chair (up to the 1970s the employer took the chair) and one or more deputies. It draws up its own rules of procedure, but management must have an opportunity to comment on them, and they must be approved by the joint union/management commission set up in each industrial sector.

In terms of frequency, the only legal requirements are that the works council must meet the employer at least twice a year to discuss the overall state of the business in the presence of one or more members of the supervisory board (see Board-level employee representation), and that the works council must meet the employer within at least two weeks of either side expressing a wish to do so. In practice, most works councils meet once a month, and the 2023 study for the Ministry for Social Affairs and Employment shows that around a quarter of all works councils (23%) also have a joint meeting with the employer at least 12 times a year. Four out of 10 (43%) meet the employer six times a year and 27% meet the employer every three months (four times a year). Only 8% meet the employer less frequently than this. 62

The works council can also set up standing-committees to deal with specific issues, such as health and safety, subcommittees covering specific parts of the undertaking, and temporary or ad hoc committees, set up to deal with specific issues. These committees can include non-works council members, although at least one member must also be on the works council. The 2023 study indicates that more than half of works council (52%) have no standing committees, with 28% having a committee managing day-to-day issues and setting the agenda of the works council and a quarter (24%) having a committee dealing with health and safety and the environment.

Companies with between 10 and 50 employees can voluntarily choose to set up a works council if they wish, and they must set up a personnel delegation – a kind of mini-works council with more limited rights – if this is the wish of a majority of employees. The personnel delegation must have at least three members.

The rules governing the operation of workplace trade union groups, where these exist, are set out in the appropriate collective agreements.

Election and term of office

Works council members are elected as part of a list of candidates, with the choice made according to the percentage of votes which each list receives. Lists can be proposed either by unions or by a single employee or group of employees. To make a valid nomination, a union must meet certain conditions:

• it must have a constitution which states that part of its purpose is to protect its members as employees;
• it must have been in existence for at least two years;
• it must have members in the enterprise; and
• it must have consulted them on the make-up of the list of candidates being proposed.

The only stipulation on employees or groups of employees making a nomination is that they must be eligible to vote in the election and they may not be a member of a union that has submitted a list of candidates.

The right to vote is limited to those who have been working in the enterprise for at least six months and candidates must have been working there for at least 12 months.

Works council members normally serve for three years, although the works council's own rules of procedure can reduce the term of office to two years or extend it to four years.

The trade union group consists of the union's members on the works council and other trade union activists, who are more likely to volunteer to do a particular job than be elected, although elections are possible.

Tasks and rights

The purpose of the works council is not simply to represent the employees. The legislation makes clear that "consultations with and representation of" the employees are "in the interests of the sound functioning of the enterprise in all its objectives". It is this that explains the frequency of joint meetings between the works council and management.

The law provides the works council with three main types of right: information rights; consultation rights and approval rights. In addition, the works council has powers to make proposals to which the employer must respond – the right of initiative. Works councils are not normally involved in collective bargaining on pay, although they often have a role in agreeing how some aspects of industry agreements, particularly those relating to working time are implemented at enterprise level (see Who negotiates?).

The information rights mean that management is obliged automatically to give the works council information on a range of financial/economic issues. At the beginning of each terms of office for the new works council (every three years – see Election and term of office) management must provide information on the legal form, the names and addresses of the key decision makers (such as partners of directors), the structure and organisation of the business, its links (including international links) with other businesses and the power relations between them and the make-up of the management.

On an ongoing basis, management must provide information on the activities and financial results of the business and the prospects for the futures, including investment plans (both at least twice a year). Management must also give the works council copies of the annual report and accounts, including consolidated accounts of the group, where this is relevant, and details of the specific results for the part of the business the works council covers, if the annual report relates to a larger entity. It must also provide the works council with information on its long-term corporate plan if it prepares such a document.

At least once a year management must give the works council details of the numbers employed, broken down by groups, and the business’s social policies towards them, covering issues like pay, training and working time. The works council should also be given forecasts on staff numbers and social policy for the coming year, and at least once a year management must provide information on the number of temporary agency workers and the plans for their use in the coming year. The works council must also be told if the business plans to bring in an outside expert in relation to issues such as pay, training or working time, and if it makes specific changes to pension arrangements. In addition, because of changes introduced in January 2019, the employer must provide the works council with information on the pay and conditions of different groups of employees within the organisation, including senior management. This new provision, which only applies to organisations with a 100 or more employees, is intended to improve transparency on the issue.

As well as these specific information rights, the works council has the right to ask for all the information it reasonably needs to carry out its tasks.

The works council’s consultation rights are wide ranging, and an important element of these rights is set out in article 24 of the Works Councils Act. This states that “the general operation of the enterprise shall be discussed at least twice a year in consultation meetings” and that at these meetings the works council will be informed of the employer’s plans in relation to a range of key issues (see lists below) and that these meetings “agreement will also be reached about when and how the works council will be involved in the decision-making process”.

These “Article 24 meetings” are seen as particularly important as a member of the supervisory board (or a representative), which in larger companies normally agrees the overall strategy for the business (see Board-level employee representation) should be present along with management and the works council. However, in practice, supervisory board members are only present in a third (34%) of the cases where they should be. 63

As well as this requirement to have a general consultative meeting at least twice a year, management must consult the works council if it plans to:

• sell all or part of the business;
• set up, take over or sell other organisations (does not apply to international transactions which are unlikely to have a significant effect on employees in the Netherlands);
• end all or a large part of the organisation’s activity;
• significantly reduce or expand or change in some other way the enterprise’s activities;
• make major changes to the power structures within the organisation;
• relocate the organisation;
• undertake large scale recruitment or the recruitment of temporary workers;
• make major investments;
• seek large loans;
• extend more credit than is normal;
• make important technological changes;
• make changes which will affect the environment;
• change arrangements providing insurance to cover sickness and death in service; and
• commission external advice (also normally does not apply to international operations).

On all these issues the employer must seek the views of the works council and delay taking action for at least a month if the works council disagrees with the proposal. If the management disagrees with the works council’s views, it must set out its reasons in writing. During this period, the works council can appeal to the Companies Chamber of the Court of Appeal in Amsterdam, and if the court considers that the employer’s decision is unfair it can forbid the employer for acting or require that actions that have already been taken be reversed.

The views of the works council must also be sought when a director is being appointed but the works council cannot delay this decision.

The approval rights, where the employer cannot act without the agreement of the works council, relate to company/workplace regulations on a range of topics including:

• pension insurance, profit-sharing or savings schemes;
• working hours, rest periods and leave;
• pay and job grading systems;
• working conditions, sick leave and return to work after sickness;
• policy on appointments, dismissals and promotion;
• rules on staff training;
• rules on staff appraisals;
• arrangements for helping employees with social problems;
• rules on work consultation meetings (normally between employees and line-management);
• complaints procedures;
• the handling and protection of employees’ personal data;
• the monitoring or surveillance of employees’ attendance, behaviour or performance; and
• procedures relating to the protection of whistleblowers.

Regulations on these issues cannot be introduced, changed or ended without the approval of the works council unless they are covered by a collective agreement. If the works council fails to give its approval the employer can appeal to joint union management commissions set up in each industry, and then to the district court.

The so-called right of initiative – allowing the works council to make proposals to which the employer must respond – is set out in much less detail in the legislation, which simply states that the employer must discuss proposals from the works council in a meeting and must not take a decision on these proposals before this discussion.

All the rights set out in the legislation can be extended by collective agreements. The works council also has powers to ensure that the provisions of collective agreements are being properly applied.

In practice there are differences in how each of these types of rights are used. There seem to be fewest difficulties with the provision of information, at least in medium and larger undertakings. The 2023 report on works councils for the Ministry for Social Affairs and Employment found that 95% of works councils had discussed “the general operation of the enterprise”.

The consultation rights are more problematical with companies sometimes claiming that the changes they propose are not sufficiently important to warrant consultation or asking for the works council to respond too quickly. As, in any case, the court is likely to agree to the company's plans unless procedural mistakes have been made, or employees’ interests have not been sufficiently taken into account. The real importance of these rights is to enable the employer and works council to reach an agreement without a court case. The approval rights are also heavily used, particularly in dealing with working time arrangements, but sometimes a works council will fail to give its approval but then not take action when the company goes ahead with its plans anyway. It requires the works council to initiate legal action to nullify the company's plans.

The right to take the initiative and make proposals to which the company must respond is used relatively infrequently. On the other hand, the possibility of the works council agreeing the specific implementation at company level of the terms of an industry level collective agreement is widely used. The 2023 report on works councils for the Ministry for Social Affairs and Employment found that more than half of works councils (54%) were covered by a collective agreement that allowed the works council to modify working conditions to reflect local needs and that, where this option was available, 86% of works council made use of it. 64

The key task of the trade union groups is to be active on behalf of the union in the workplace, including recruiting new members, to represent union members in problems with management and to report back to the union outside the plant on developments. Often this is backed up by the terms of the collective agreement. In some unions the trade union plant group is also the lowest level of democratic decision making in the union.

The trade union group will support the union's candidates for the works council election, who will mostly be members of the group. Once elected the trade union group will work closely with those of its members who are on the works council, feeding members' problems and union concerns into the works council's discussions. In bigger companies each of the union confederations as well as those not affiliated to a union may have a faction meeting before the works council itself. However, overall, compared with many other countries, unions are not particularly prominent at company level – including in the works council.

The trade union group also has a role in collective bargaining, at least when it is conducted at company level. This is still primarily left to union full time officials, but they are often accompanied by representatives of the trade union groups who have an input into the claim and help decide whether or not it is acceptable to the members.

Protection against dismissal

Works council members can only be dismissed if the worker himself or herself agrees in writing, or if it has been authorised by a magistrate. This authorisation will only be given if there are serious reasons for immediate dismissal or the company, or part of it, closes. Any connection between the dismissal and works council membership makes the dismissal unlawful. Members of the works council may also not be disadvantaged because of their membership, and the works council can ask the court to require that the employer must comply with this provision.

Members of the trade union group have no specific protection against disciplinary measures, including dismissal, unless they are on the works council. However, like other trade unionists, they cannot legally be discriminated against because of their trade union activity and some collective agreements specifically spell this out.

Works council members, as well as those taking the initial steps to set up a works council, candidates for the works council and former works council members are protected against “disadvantage” under the terms of the Works Council Act. 65 They are protected against dismissal in the Dutch Civil Code. 66

This states that an employer “may not terminate the employment agreement with an employee who is a member of a works council, a central works council, a group works council, a permanent committee or subcommittee of such works councils or of a personnel delegation”. The protection extends to the secretary of the works council or personnel delegation if the employer has assigned someone to that role.

There are also similar protections for members of European employee representation bodies such as European works councils, special negotiation bodies for European works councils and SE-works councils.

Where this protection applies – there are circumstances where it does not (see below), the dismissal of a member of the works council or the other bodies listed above can be annulled by notifying the employer within two months that the dismissal would be unlawful. This means that the dismissal is deemed not to have taken place. The employee continues to be paid, and the employer is not liable for damages.

However, the protection against dismissal is by no means absolute. There are several situations where an employer can lawfully dismiss a member of a works council or of the other bodies listed above. Some relate to the economic position of the employer, some to the personal/contractual situation of the works council member, and some to their behaviour. In detail a works council member can be dismissed:

• where the entire organisation or the part where the works council member works is being closed;
• during bankruptcy;
• where there is a collective redundancy which does not involved a closure of the organisation but is necessary for economic reasons. The economic reason for the redundancy must be unlikely to improve for at least 26 weeks, although a works council member who has not been employed in their current position for at least 26 weeks is protected against dismissal (This is to prevent an employer being able to get rid of a works council member by moving them to an area of the organisation facing redundancies);
• during a probation period;
• at the end of a fixed-term contract;
• on reaching retirement age.
• where the employee concerned has agreed in writing to termination of the contract;
• where the behaviour of the works council member is such as to justify instant dismissal. Examples of such behaviour include theft, drunkenness, gross neglect of the duties of the employee and threatening the employer;
• where the employer has obtained agreement from the district court that there is a serious reason for the dismissal of the employee, such as incapacity, long-term illness or a refusal to undertake duties required in the employment contract. However, all these reasons must be unconnected to the individual’s activities in the works council.

This protection is not just provided to members of works councils and other similar bodies. It also extends to those who are involved in setting them up, who are candidates for election, or who are used as experts by the works council.

The protection lasts for two years after leaving office.

The protection provided to union members is much more limited. The Dutch Civil Code states only that an employer may not dismiss a union member for union participation or activity “unless those activities are performed during the employee’s working time without the employer’s permission”. 67

Time off and other resources

The exact amount of paid time-off for works council duties is left to be agreed between the works council and the employer. But as a minimum, works council members are entitled to 60 hours’ time off a year, in addition to time off for meetings. In practice, in larger companies, some works council members have substantially more. The 2023 study on works councils for the Ministry for Social Affairs and Employment found that in almost all cases (99%) works council duties are considered as working time, with two-thirds (66%) setting this out in formal arrangements and a third (33%) dealing with it informally. 68 However, the survey also shows that in only 3% of works councils is there at least one member fully freed from other duties, although in a fifth (22%) non-works council members are given time to participate in works council activities, such as committees and advisory groups.

The employer is legally obliged to provide facilities necessary to enable the works council to function. The 2023 survey shows that, in practice, these include: access to the intranet or other internal communications channels (76% of cases); space to hold consultations with employees (49%); space for work council meetings (45%). In a third of cases (32%) the works council has an official secretary. 69

In addition, the works council can call on outside experts to take part in meetings to give advice on a particular agenda point and/or to provide consultancy reports. These experts are paid for by the employer, provided the employer has been informed in advance. The works council can also ask the union for advice and to be present at meetings.

The exact rights of the trade union group depend on the collective agreement covering the workplace. Typically, they include a number of hours paid time-off, time-off to attend union conferences or union training, although this may be subject to an overall limit. In addition, the trade union group may be allowed to: use a company room to meet members or union officials; distribute information about the union; and accompany members in grievance cases.

Training rights

Works council members have a right to “education and training of sufficient quality which they consider necessary in connection with the fulfilment of their duties”. This must be for at least five days a year, although collective agreements can improve on this. Members of sub-committees of the works council also have a right to at least three days’ training a year and those who are both members of the works council and a sub-committee have a right to at least eight days’ training a year. Time spent training is paid as working time. 70

All training costs are borne by the employer, although the Social and Economic Council (a tripartite advisory body – see Joint employer/union body at national level) can set target amounts for the various costs associated with education and training.

The employer and the works council can also agree that the works council should have its own training budget, which it can spend as it wishes.

In smaller companies, with between 10 and 49 employees, employee representatives have a right to education and training they consider necessary, although the amount of training is to be agreed with the employer and there are no minimum periods specified.

In practice, the 2023 study for Ministry for Social Affairs and Employment found that the amount of training was generally less than that permitted by the legislation. 71 On average, works council members got between two-and-a-half and three days training over the two years 2021 and 2022. On the other hand, almost two-thirds of works councils (63%) had their own training budget.

Education and training happen less frequently in smaller companies with fewer than 50 employees. In the 2023 survey, 57% of employee representatives had no training, and 25% had two days or less over two years.

Representation at group level

Where several companies belong to a single parent company, a central works council (COR) must be set up covering all the companies “if this is in the interest of the proper implementation of the Act”. It is also possible to set up a group works council (GOR) for only some of the companies in the group, if this would make more sense. The choice between these options depends on the specific circumstances.

The central works council is made up of members of the individual works councils, or group works councils, if these exist, and the central works council determines in its own rules of procedure how many members will come from each works council and how they will be elected.

Central and group works councils only deal with issues that are common at central or group level, and for these issues the central and group works councils have the same rights as local works councils.

There is no obligation to set up either a central or a group works council, and they do not replace the works council at organisational level.

Works councils have the right to nominate up to one third of the members of supervisory boards or a third of the non-executive directors in larger companies. However, neither employees of the companies nor trade unionists dealing with them can be nominated, so the works council’s nominees are distant from employees’ day-to-day concerns and are not there to represent employees.

• 1

  For a detailed examination of trade unions in the Netherlands see Trade unions in the Netherlands: Erosion of their power base in the stable Polder Model Paul de Beer and Lisa Berntsen in Trade Unions in the European Union, edited by Jeremy Waddington, Torsten Müller and Kurt Vandaele, Peter Lang, 2023 https://www.etui.org/sites/default/files/2023-06/Chapter21_Netherlands_Erosion%20of%20their%20power%20base%20in%20the%20stable%20Polder%20Model_2023.pdf

• 2

  StatLine – Historie leden vakverenigingen, CBS, 31 October 2025 https://opendata.cbs.nl/#/CBS/nl/dataset/70061ned/table?searchKeywords=keyword:vakbonden

• 3

  63 duizend minder mensen lid van een vakbond, CBS, 31 October 2023 https://www.cbs.nl/nl-nl/nieuws/2023/44/63-duizend-minder-mensen-lid-van-een-vakbond 

• 4

  StatLine – Organisatiegraad werknemers; bedrijfstak en vestigingsgrootte, CBS, TNO, 15 April 2025 https://opendata.cbs.nl/statline/#/CBS/nl/dataset/85992NED/table?ts=1754901099291

• 5

  OECD/AIAS ICTWSS database: trade union density, OECD, 2025 https://www.oecd.org/en/data/datasets/oecdaias-ictwss-database.html

• 6

  Organisatiegraad werknemers; bedrijfstak en vestigingsgrootte, CBS, 14 April 2025 https://opendata.cbs.nl/statline/#/CBS/nl/dataset/85992NED/table?ts=1754901099291

• 7

  Membership figures for FNV, CNV, VCP and the total of other unions are taken from the CBS statistics for 2025 quoted above

• 8

  Jaarverslag 2024, Versterken FNV

    https://jaarverslag.fnv-publicaties.nl/fnv-jaarverslag-2024/fnv-jaarverslag-2024

• 9

  Vakbonden hebben minder leden, AOb in de lift, Aob, 14.11.23 

  https://www.aob.nl/actueel/artikelen/leden-vakbonden-dalen-aob-in-de-lift/ 

• 10

  Eén CNV! Het geheugen van de vakbeweging, May 2024 https://vakbondshistorie.nl/dossiers/een-cnv/

• 11

  CNV Website https://www.cnv.nl/over-ons/geschiedenis-cnv/#menu-sector

• 12

  VCP website https://www.vcp.nl/over-ons/aangesloten-vakbonden/ (Accessed 06.10.14)

• 13

  NU‘91 website https://nu91.nl/wie-zijn-wij/identiteit

• 14

  Ook De Unie, UOV en ANBO verbinden zich aan de VCP, 22 June 2017  https://www.vcp.nl/%e2%80%8book-de-unie-uov-en-anbo-verbinden-zich-aan-de-vcp/

• 15

  ANBO-PCOB website Geschiedenis van ANBO-PCOB https://anbo-pcob.nl/over-ons/geschiedenis/

• 16

  Welke vakbonden zijn er voor de rijksoverheid? Ambtenarensalaris.nl https://ambtenarensalaris.nl/kennisbank/rijksoverheid/vakbonden-rijksoverheid/

• 17

  Jaarverslag FBZ https://www.fbz.nl/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/FBZ-Jaarverslag-2024.pdf 

• 18

  For a list fo smaller unions see Het al dan niet betrokken zijn van de vakbonden bij de totstandkoming van een cao, Ministerie van Sociale Zaken en Werkgelegenheid, August 2024 https://www.uitvoeringarbeidsvoorwaardenwetgeving.nl/mozard/document/docnr/1415654

• 19

  LBV website https://www.lbv.nl/over-lbv/onze-missie-en-visie 

• 20

  AVV: Werkwijze & financiering  https://avv.nu/over-avv/werkwijze-financiering

• 21

  Oud-PvdA-leider Lodewijk Asscher gaat puinruimen bij FNV, NOS, 17.06.2025 https://nos.nl/artikel/2571510-oud-pvda-leider-lodewijk-asscher-gaat-puinruimen-bij-fnv

• 22

  StatLine – Historie leden vakverenigingen, CBS, 31 October 2023 https://opendata.cbs.nl/#/CBS/nl/dataset/70061ned/table?searchKeywords=keyword:vakbonden

• 23

  63 duizend minder mensen lid van een vakbond, CBS, 31 October 2023 https://www.cbs.nl/nl-nl/nieuws/2023/44/63-duizend-minder-mensen-lid-van-een-vakbond

• 24

  Figures for employees from Employment; economic activity, quarterly, National Accounts, CBS

• 25

  Organisatiegraad werknemers; bedrijfstak en vestigingsgrootte, CBS Statline, 15 April 2025 https://opendata.cbs.nl/#/CBS/nl/dataset/85992NED/table?ts=1754901099291

• 26

  Trade unions in the Netherlands: Erosion of their power base in the stable Polder Model Paul de Beer and Lisa Berntsen in Trade Unions in the European Union, edited by Jeremy Waddington, Torsten Müller and Kurt Vandaele, Peter Lang, 2023 https://www.etui.org/sites/default/files/2023-06/Chapter21_Netherlands_Erosion%20of%20their%20power%20base%20in%20the%20stable%20Polder%20Model_2023.pdf

• 27

  StatLine – Organisatiegraad werknemers; bedrijfstak en vestigingsgrootte, CBS, TNO, 15 April 2025 https://opendata.cbs.nl/statline/#/CBS/nl/dataset/85992NED/table?ts=1754901099291

• 28

  63 duizend minder mensen lid van een vakbond, CBS, 31 October 2023 https://www.cbs.nl/nl-nl/nieuws/2023/44/63-duizend-minder-mensen-lid-van-een-vakbond

• 29

  Organisatiegraad werknemers; persoonskenmerken, CBS,15 April 2025, https://www.cbs.nl/nl-nl/cijfers/detail/85991NED 

• 30

  For a detailed examination of collective bargaining in the Netherlands see The Netherlands: decentralisation and growing power imbalances within a stable institutional context by Wike Been and Maarten Keune, in Collective bargaining in Europe: towards an endgame, edited by Torsten Müller, Kurt Vandaele and Jeremy Waddington, ETUI, 2019 https://www.etui.org/sites/default/files/CB%20Vol%20II%20Chapter%2021.pdf 

• 31

  Cao-afspraken 2025, Ministerie van Sociale Zaken en Werkgelegenheid Bijlage II, and Tabel 1-1 May 2025 https://www.uitvoeringarbeidsvoorwaardenwetgeving.nl/mozard/document/docnr/1442075

• 32

  Figures for employees from Employment; economic activity, quarterly, National Accounts, 2025 CBS

• 33

  Werknemers naar soort CAO en SBI naar achtergrondkenmerken, 2010-2024, CBS, 7 October 2025 https://www.cbs.nl/-/media/_excel/2025/41/werknemers-naar-soort-cao-en-sbi-naar-achtergrondkenmerken-2010-2024.xlsx 

• 34

  Balanceren op de cao-helling: Oorzaken van de daling van de cao-dekkingsgraad en wat eraan te doen is, Bijlage A – Cao-gegevens van het CBS en van SZW vergeleken, by Paul de Beer & Rein de Sauvage Nolting, De Burcht, May 2024 https://www.deburcht.nl/app-download/?item_id=106

• 35

  OECD/AIAS ICTWSS database: collective bargaining coverage, OECD, 2025 https://www.oecd.org/en/data/datasets/oecdaias-ictwss-database.html

• 36

  Cao-afspraken 2025, Ministerie van Sociale Zaken en Werkgelegenheid Bijlage II, May 2025, https://www.uitvoeringarbeidsvoorwaardenwetgeving.nl/mozard/document/docnr/1442075

• 37

  Cao-afspraken 2024, Ministerie van Sociale Zaken en Werkgelegenheid Bijlage II, May 2024 https://www.uitvoeringarbeidsvoorwaardenwetgeving.nl/mozard/document/docnr/1407189 

• 38

  Toetsingskader algemeenverbindendverklaring cao-bepalingen (AVV) 2024 https://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0028909/2024-06-26

• 39

  CAO-afspraken 2024 Ministerie van Sociale Zaken en Werkgelegenheid Bijlage II, Tabel II-6, May 2025 https://www.uitvoeringarbeidsvoorwaardenwetgeving.nl/mozard/document/docnr/1407189

• 40

  Dispensatiebepalingen in CAO’s, Ministerie van Sociale Zaken en Werkgelegenheid September, https://www.tweedekamer.nl/downloads/document?id=2016D43765

• 41

  Het al dan niet betrokken zijn van de vakbonden bij de totstandkoming van een cao, Ministerie van Sociale Zaken en Werkgelegenheid, August 2024 https://www.uitvoeringarbeidsvoorwaardenwetgeving.nl/mozard/document/docnr/1415654

• 42

  Akkoord uitzend CAO tussen ABU, NBBU en LBV. FNV, CNV ‘verbolgen’ dat ze gepasseerd zijn, ZIPconomy, 11.04.2025

• 43

  Advies aan minister van SZW over bevorderen collectieve onderhandelingen, Stichting van de Arbeid, 04.07 2025 https://www.stvda.nl/-/media/stvda/downloads/publicaties/2025/advies-cao-avv-stelsel.pdf 

• 44

  ECLI:NL:RBOBR:2019:89,, 24.01.2019 https://uitspraken.rechtspraak.nl/details?id=ECLI:NL:RBOBR:2019:89

• 45

  See https://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0009616/2018-07-28/#Hoofdstuk3_Artikel10 

• 46

  See The right to strike in public service – the Netherlands, EPSU and ETUI, 2021 https://www.epsu.org/sites/default/files/article/files/Netherlands%20-%20Right%20to%20strike%20in%20the%20public%20sector%20-%20factsheet%20upd%202021.pdf

• 47

  Strikes in the Netherlands - background summary, ETUI, 2016 https://www.etui.org/covid-social-impact/netherlands/strikes-in-the-netherlands-background-summary 

• 48

  See Right to strike: ESC and points of view (no obstacles in advance) TELFA https://www.telfa.law/right-to-strike-esc-and-points-of-view-no-obstacles-in-advance/

• 49

  See The right to strike in public service – the Netherlands, EPSU and ETUI, 2021 https://www.epsu.org/sites/default/files/article/files/Netherlands%20-%20Right%20to%20strike%20in%20the%20public%20sector%20-%20factsheet%20upd%202021.pdf

• 50

  Cao-afspraken 2025, Ministerie van Sociale Zaken en Werkgelegenheid Bijlage II, and Tabel 1-1 May 2025 https://www.uitvoeringarbeidsvoorwaardenwetgeving.nl/mozard/document/docnr/1442075 

• 51

  Own calculations from Employment; economic activity, quarterly, National Accounts, CBS Statline https://www.cbs.nl/en-gb/figures/detail/85920ENG for the last quarter of the previous year and Cao-afspraken 2025, Ministerie van Sociale Zaken en Werkgelegenheid Bijlage II, and Tabel 1-1 May 2025 https://www.uitvoeringarbeidsvoorwaardenwetgeving.nl/mozard/document/docnr/1442075 plus Cao-afspraken 2024, Ministerie van Sociale Zaken en Werkgelegenheid Bijlage II,Tabel II-7, May 2024 https://cao.minszw.nl/mozard/toon/cao-afspraken

• 52

  Advies aan minister van SZW over bevorderen collectieve onderhandelingen, Stichting van de Arbeid, 04.07 2025 https://www.stvda.nl/-/media/stvda/downloads/publicaties/2025/advies-cao-avv-stelsel.pdf

• 53

  FNV legt hoogste looneis in dertig jaar op tafe, FD.nl https://fd.nl/economie-politiek/1270647/fnv-schroeft-centrale-looneis-op-tot-5

• 54

  Bekendmaking FNV-arbeidsvoorwaardenagenda 2025, FNV, 16.08.2024 https://www.fnv.nl/nieuwsbericht/algemeen-nieuws/2024/09/bekendmaking-fnv-arbeidsvoorwaardenagenda-2025

• 55

  For further information on the minimum wage see Collective bargaining and minimum wage regime in the Netherlands by Paul de Beer, 2025 https://www.etui.org/sites/default/files/2025-06/Netherlands_Collective%20bargaining%20and%20minimum%20wage%20regime_2025.pdf 

• 56

  Council members https://www.ser.nl/nl/ser/raad/raadsleden

• 57

  Works council study https://open.overheid.nl/documenten/de27c33c-bc71-44e9-99d2-ff7a92190c4f/file

• 58

  Naleving van de Wet op de Ondernemingsraden: Nalevingsonderzoek 2023, SEO Economisch Onderzoek, 23.01.2024 https://www.seo.nl/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/2023-83-Naleving-op-de-wet-op-ondernemingsraden-1.pdf

• 59

  European Company Survey 2019 - Workplace practices unlocking employee potential, by Gijs van Houten and Giovanni Russo, Eurofound 2020, Figures for Table 72 https://www.eurofound.europa.eu/system/files/2020-11/ef20001en.pdf

• 60

  Naleving van de Wet op de Ondernemingsraden: Nalevingsonderzoek 2023, Chart 2.2, SEO Economisch Onderzoek, 23.01.2024 https://www.seo.nl/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/2023-83-Naleving-op-de-wet-op-ondernemingsraden-1.pdf

• 61

  Works councils in Germany and the Netherlands compared by Annette van den Berg, Yolanda Grift, Saraï Sapulete, Wolfram Brehmer, Martin Behrens and Arjen van Witteloostuijn WSI, January 2019 https://www.boeckler.de/fpdf/HBS-007081/p_wsi_studies_17_2019.pdf

• 62

  Naleving van de Wet op de Ondernemingsraden: Nalevingsonderzoek 2023, Table 4.4, SEO Economisch Onderzoek, 23.01.2024 https://www.seo.nl/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/2023-83-Naleving-op-de-wet-op-ondernemingsraden-1.pdf

• 63

  Naleving van de Wet op de Ondernemingsraden: Nalevingsonderzoek 2023, Chart 4.11, SEO Economisch Onderzoek, 23.01.2024 https://www.seo.nl/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/2023-83-Naleving-op-de-wet-op-ondernemingsraden-1.pdf

• 64

  Naleving van de Wet op de Ondernemingsraden: Nalevingsonderzoek 2023, Chart 4.10, SEO Economisch Onderzoek, 23.01.2024 https://www.seo.nl/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/2023-83-Naleving-op-de-wet-op-ondernemingsraden-1.pdf 

• 65

  Article 21 of the Works Council Act (Wet op de ondernemingsraden) https://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0002747/2022-01-01

• 66

  Book 7 of the Dutch Civil Code (Burgerlijk Wetboek Boek 7), Articles 7: 670-4, 7:670-10, 7: 670a, 7: 670b and 7: 681-1b https://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0005290/2021-05-01 

• 67

  Dutch Civil Code Book 7: 670-5 (Burgerlijk Wetboek Boek 7)

• 68

  Naleving van de Wet op de Ondernemingsraden: Nalevingsonderzoek 2023,Table 4.5, SEO Economisch Onderzoek, 23.01.2024 https://www.seo.nl/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/2023-83-Naleving-op-de-wet-op-ondernemingsraden-1.pdf

• 69

  Ibid Table 4.6

• 70

  Article 18.2 and 18.3 of the Works Council Act (Wet op de ondernemingsraden); Articles 22 and 35 of the Act deal with other aspects of training  https://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0002747/2022-01-01

• 71

  Naleving van de Wet op de Ondernemingsraden: Nalevingsonderzoek 2023, Chart 4.4, SEO Economisch Onderzoek, 23.01.2024 https://www.seo.nl/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/2023-83-Naleving-op-de-wet-op-ondernemingsraden-1.pdf